Infinitive

Forming the infinitive:

the to-infinitive = to + base (to sit)
the zero infinitive = base (sit)

Functions of the to-infinitive:

1. To indicate the purpose or intention of an action. eg: She came to collect her pay cheque.
2. As the subject of the sentence: eg: To visit the Grand Canyon is my life-long dream.
3. To indicate what something can or will be used for: eg: I don't have anything to wear.
4. After adjectives: subject + to be + adjective + (for/of someone) + to-infinitive + (rest of sentence). eg: It is good to talk.
5. To make a comment or judgement: Subject + to be + noun phrase + to-infinitive. eg: It was a stupid to place to stay.
6. With adverbs. eg: I had too many books to carry.
7. With question words: The verbs ask, decide, explain, forget, know, show, tell, & understand can be followed by a question word such as where, how, what, who, & when + the to-infinitive. eg: Do you understand what to do?

Functions of the zero infinitive:

1. After auxiliaries. eg: She can't speak to you.
2. After verbs of perception. eg: We heard them close the door.
3. After the verbs 'make' and 'let'. eg: Her parents let her stay out late.
4. After the expression 'had better'. eg: We had better reserve a room in the hotel.
5. with "why". eg: Why wait until tomorrow?

Gerund

1. The gerund as the subject of the sentence: Flying makes me nervous.
2. The gerund as the complement of the verb 'to be': One of his duties is attending meetings.
3. The gerund after prepositions: She is good at painting.
4. The gerund after phrasal verbs: He kept on asking for money.
5. The gerund in compound nouns: They have a swimming pool in their back yard. 
6. The gerund after some expressions: I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.

Spelling Rules for Regular Past Tense Verbs

Spelling Rules for Regular Past Tense Verbs

1. Add –ed to the base form of most verbs

start - started

finish - finished

wash - washed

2. Add only–d when the base form ends in an e.

live -lived

care -cared

die -died

3. If the verb ends in a consonant +y, change they to i and add–ed

dry - dried

carry - carried

spy - spied

4. If the verb ends in a vowel +y, do not change they. Just add –ed

pray - prayed

stay - stayed

destroy - destroyed

5. If the verb has one syllable and ends in a consonant + vowel + consonant (CVC), double the
final consonant and add–ed.

stop - stopped

rob - robbed

beg - begged

6. Do not double final w or x.

sew - sewed

mix - mixed

7. If the verb has two syllables, and the final syllable is stressed, double the final consonant.

ad mit’ - admitted

oc cur’ - occurred

per mit’ -permitted

8. If the verb has two syllables, and the final syllable isnot stressed, do not double the final consonant.

hap’ pen - happened

lis’ ten - listened

o’ pen - opened

Future with 'going to'

1- Form

verb 'to be' + going to + infinitive of the main verb

Subject + 'to be' + going to + infinitive
I am going to leave

2- Function

The use of 'going to' to refer to future events suggests a very strong association with the present. The time is not important - it is later than now, but the attitude is the event depends on a present situation, that we know about it. So it is used:

- plans and intentions
We're going to move to London next year. (= the plan is in our minds now.)

- predictions based on present evidence:
Look at those clouds - it is going to pour with rain! (= it's clear from what I can see now.)

Note: In everyday speech, 'going to' is often shortened to 'gonna', especially In American English.

Plans and intentions:

- Is Freddy going to buy a new car soon?
- Are John and Pam going to visit Milan when they are in Italy?
- I think Nigel and Mary are going to have a party next week.

Predictions based on present evidence:

- There is going to be a terrible accident!
- He is going to be a brilliant politician.
- I'm going to have a terrible indigestion.

Note: It is unusual to say 'I'm going to go to...'
Instead, we use 'going to' + a place or event:

Examples:

- We're going to the beach tomorrow.
- She is going to the ballet tonight.
- Are you going to the party tomorrow night?

Past Continuous

We use the Past Continuous to talk about past events which went on for a period of time.

We use it when we want to emphasize the continuing process of an activity or the period of that activity. (If we just want to talk about the past event as a simple fact, we use the past simple.)

- While I was driving home, Peter was trying desperately to contact me.
- Were you expecting any visitors?
- Sorry, were you sleeping?
- I was just making some coffee.
- I was thinking about him last night.
- In the 1990s few people were using mobile phones.

We often use it to describe a "background action" when something else happened.

- I was walking in the street when it suddenly fell over.
- She was talking to me on the phone and it suddenly went dead.
- They were still waiting for the plane when I spoke to them.
- The company was declining rapidly before he took charge.
- We were just talking about it before you arrived.
- I was making a presentation in front of 500 people when the microphone stopped working.

Past Simple

We use the Past Simple to talk about actions and states which we see as completed in the past.

We use it talk about specific point in time.

- She came back last Friday.
- I saw her in the street.
- They didn't agree to the deal.

It can also used to talk about a period of time.

- She lived in New York for seven years.
- They were in London from Monday to Thursday of last week.
- When I was living in New York, I went to all the art exhibitions I could.

You will often find the past simple used with the time expressions such as these:

- yesterday
- three weeks ago
- last year
- in 2002
- from March to June
- for a long time
- for 6 weeks
- in the 1980s
- in the last century
- in the past

Present Simple or Continuous

We use the Present Simple

- for regular action or event
I watch TV most evening.
- facts
The sun rises in the east.
- facts know about the future
The plane leaves at 5:00 in the morning.
- thoughts and feelings about the time of speaking
I don't understand.

We use the Present Continuous

- at the time of speaking ('now')
I'm watching a movie on TV.
- things which are true at the moment but not always
I'm looking for a new job.
- present plans for the future
I'm taking my husband to New York for his birthday.

Look at these sentences:

- I usually don't drink coffee but I'm having one this morning because there is nothing else.
- I often drive to work but I'm taking the train this morning because my car is in for repair.
- I'm thinking about dying my hair blond but I don't think my wife will be happy about it.
- My parents live in New York but I'm just visiting.

Notice how in all these examples we use the present continuous to talk about events which are temporary/limit in time and the present simple to talk about events which are habits/permanent.

Present Simple

Present simple is used to talk about actions we see as long term or permanent. It is very common and very important.

In these examples, we are talking about regular actions or events.

- I drive to work every day.
- She doesn't come very often.
- The games usually start at 8:00 in the evening.
- What do you usually have for breakfast?

In these examples, we are talking about fact.

- Water freezes at 0º or 32º F.
- I have three children.
- What does this word mean?
- I don't have any of my original teeth left.

In these examples, we are talking about facts, usually found in a timetable or a chart.

- The plane leaves at 5:00 tomorrow morning.
- Christmas day usually falls on a Saturday this year.
- Ramadan doesn't begin for another 2 weeks.
- Does the class begins this week or next?

In these examples, we are talking about our thoughts and feelings at the time of speaking. Notice that, although these feelings can be short term, we use the present simple and not the present continuous.

- I think you are wrong.
- She doesn't want to do it.
- They don't agree with us.
- Do you understand what I'm trying to say?

Present Continuous

The present continuous is used to talk about the present situations which we see as a short term or temporary. We use the present simple to talk about present situations which we see as a long term or permanent.

In these examples, the action is taking place at the time of speaking.

- It is raining.
- Who is Kate talking to on the phone?
- Look, somebody is trying to steal that man's wallet.
- I'm not looking. My eyes are closed tightly.

In these examples, the action is true at the present time but we don't think it will be true in the long term.

- I'm looking for a new apartment.
- He is thinking about leaving his job.
- They're considering making an appeal against the judgment.
- Are you getting enough sleep?

- In these examples, the action is at a definite point in the future and it has already been arranged.

- I'm meeting her at 6:30 .
- They aren't arriving until Tuesday.
- We're having a specific dinner at a top restaurant for all the senior managers.
- Isn't is coming to the dinner?

Present Simple

Structure of present simple
I work in a bank.	I don't (do not) work in a bank.	Do you work in a bank?
He works in a bank.	He doesn't (does not) work in a bank.	Does he work in a bank?

Present simple - common mistakes
Common mistakes	Correct version	Why?
I working in London.	I work in London.	The gerund ing form is not used in the present simple.
He work in London.	He works in London.	The third person he, she, it adds the letter s.
He work in London?	Does he work in London?	Questions - third person: does + subject + infinitive. All other persons: do + subject + infinitive.
Work he in London?	Does he work in London?
He not work in London.	He doesn't work in London.	Negatives - third person: subject + doesn't + infinitive. All other persons: subject + don't + infinitive.

Adverbs of Frequency

English Grammar Notes

We use some adverbs to describe how frequently we do an activity.

These are called adverbs of frequency and include:

Frequency	Adverb of Frequency	Example Sentence
100%	always	I always go to bed before 11pm.
90%	usually	I usually walk to work.
80%	normally / generally	I normally go to the gym.
70%	often* / frequently	I often surf the internet.
50%	sometimes	I sometimes forget my wife's birthday.
30%	occasionally	I occasionally eat junk food.
10%	seldom / rarely	I seldom read the newspaper.
5%	hardly ever	I hardly ever drink alcohol.
0%	never	I never swim in the sea.

* Some people pronounce the 'T' in often but many others do not.

The Position of the Adverb in a Sentence

An adverb of frequency goes before a main verb (except with To Be).

Subject + adverb + main verb
I always remember to do my homework.
He normally gets good marks in exams.

An adverb of frequency goes after the verb To Be.

Subject + to be + adverb
They are never pleased to see me.
She isn't usually bad tempered.

When we use an auxiliary verb (have, will, must, might, could, would, can, etc.), the adverb is placed between the auxiliary and the main verb. This is also true for to be.

Subject + auxiliary + adverb + main verb
She can sometimes beat me in a race.
I would hardly ever be unkind to someone.
They might never see each other again.
They could occasionally be heard laughing.

We can also use the following adverbs at the start of a sentence:

Usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, occasionally

• Occasionally, I like to eat Thai food.

BUT we cannot use the following at the beginning of a sentence:

Always, seldom, rarely, hardly, ever, never.

We use hardly ever and never with positive, not negative verbs:

• She hardly ever comes to my parties.
• They never say 'thank you'.

We use ever in questions and negative statements:

• Have you ever been to New Zealand?
• I haven't ever been to Switzerland. (The same as 'I have never been Switzerland').

We can also use the following expressions when we want to be more specific about the frequency:

- every day - once a month - twice a year - four times a day - every other week

Count and Noncount Noun

Count / Noncount Nouns

Referring to collective nouns or units

Collective Nouns vs. Unit Nouns

COUNT NOUN – SINGULAR	COUNT NOUN – PLURAL	NONCOUNT NOUN – SINGULAR
A count noun is a unit, an item in a group. (A dollar is a unit within the collective group: money.)	A count noun can take the plural form.	A noncount noun is a group, mass or collective noun. It is not countable because it is too small to count, or it is a particle, liquid, gas, concept or activity. A collective noun has no plural form.
The dollar is on the table.	The dollars are on the table.	The money is on the table. Yes, we count money – coins and bills. However ,money (the collective noun) is noncount.

Determiners / Demonstratives

COUNT NOUN – SINGULAR	COUNT NOUN – PLURAL	NOUN COUNT NOUN – SINGULAR
The dollar is on the table.	The dollars are on the table.	The money is on the table.
This dollar is mine. (demonstrative: here)	These dollars are mine. (demonstrative: here)	This money is mine. (demonstrative: location – here)
That dollar is yours. (demonstrative: there)	Those dollars are yours. (demonstrative: there)	That money is yours. (demonstrative: location – there)
	Some dollars are on the table. (an indefinite amount)	Some money is on the table. (an indefinite amount)

Also see: Some / Any | Little / Few

Noncount Nouns (mass nouns)

CATEGORIES	EXAMPLES WITHIN
Fluids (liquids)	water, coffee, tea, milk, oil, gasoline, wine
Solids	ice, bread, butter, cheese, meat, gold, chalk silver, glass
Gases	air, oxygen, nitrogen, smoke, smog, pollution, steam
Particles	rice, corn, dirt, dust, flour, sugar, grass, hair, pepper, salt
Collective nouns (grouped items)	baggage, luggage, clothing, furniture, food, fruit, money, traffic, garbage, scenery, junk, mail, jewelry, homework, housework, work, grammar, slang, vocabulary
Abstractions	happiness, health, love, fun, help, honesty, peace, progress, beauty, knowledge, justice, intelligence, luck, music, time, space, energy, mass, gravity, experience
Languages	Arabic, French, Spanish, English, Portuguese
Language study	grammar, slang, vocabulary
Fields of study	chemistry, engineering, art, philosophy, science, law
Recreation	basketball, soccer, baseball, dance
Activities (gerunds)	sleeping, driving, writing, studying, swimming, studying, rock climbing, sky diving
Natural phenomena	weather, fog, heat, humidity, lightning, rain, snow, thunder, wind, darkness, light, sunshine, electricity, fire
Varieties	They have four kinds of eggplants. All the fishes in the sea need clean water.
Common mistakes:	I have a lot of homeworks to do. / She is washing her hairs. / The equipments weren't working well. / My baggages were lost. / I bought new furnitures.

Note 1

Fruit vs. Fruits

Dialectal variations occur for the noun fruit, also grapefruit, breadfruit and eggplant.)

SINGULAR PREFERENCE	DIALECTAL VARIATION
Most speakers prefer the singular form (below):	Preferences vary with the phrase "fruit(s) and vegetables":
Fruit is delicious in the summertime. *Fruits are delicious in the summertime. The plural form is more commonly used in a scientific context when talking about different types of fruit: Fruits of South America, Fruits of Micronesia, or in an expression "May we soon enjoy the fruits of our labor." (fruits means benefits.)	I have to buy some fruit and vegetables. I have to buy some fruits and vegetables. parallel word forms.

Related page plural varieties

The items within the category "fruit" are countable.

SINGULAR	PLURAL
This cantaloupe is delicious.	These cantaloupes are delicious.
This grape is sweet.	These grapes are sweet.

Note 2

Nouns with Both Count & Noncount Usage

Some nouns occur in both count and noncount usage:

COUNT	NONCOUNT
Use the singular form for a more particular, specific meaning.	Use the noncount form when speaking "in general".
ABSTRACT NOUNS I had a good experience today.	ABSTRACT NOUNS I have a lot of experience in hotel management.
We had an excellent time today.	Time passes slowly.
What a life she has!	Life is complicated.
What a pity that it's closed already! pity (n.) – a sad situation or disappointment	He feels pity for her.
Your thoughts are a bit strange.	Your project needs more thought.
We had a strange conversation with him.	Dinner conversation is entertaining.
My parents want me to have a good education.	Education can change a person's future.
I had a good sleep last night. (I slept well.)	Sleep improves a person's health.
He's been a big help!	Help is hard to find.
MATERIAL NOUNS I received an email from him today.	MATERIAL NOUNS I get so much email that I can't read it all.
Has the paper arrived? (newspaper)	Please put some paper in the copy machine.
I bought a glass for wine.	The store sells glass for windows.
May I have two milks. (restaurant speech = two glasses of milk)	The store sells milk.

Some and Any

The words some and any are used for countable and uncountable nouns. In general, we could say that some means a few / a little and any means none in negative clauses or a few / a little in questions.

Positive Clauses

In positive clauses, we usually use some.

Example:

I have bought some bread.

I have bought some apples.

Negative Clauses

In negative clauses, we use any. Note, however, that any alone is not a negative - it must be not ... any

Example:

I have not bought any bread.

I have not bought any apples.

Questions

In questions, we usually use any.

Example:

Have you bought any bread?

Have you bought any apples?

Compound Words with some & any

Some & any can also be part of compound words such as:

• something / anything
• someone / anyone
• somewhere / anywhere

Note that some & any have to be used with a noun while compound words with some & any can stand on their own.

Example:

I have bought some bread.

I have bought something.

However, some and any need not stand directly before the noun. Sometimes, the noun appears somewhere before some or any and is not repeated. So if you are not sure whether to use some or something for example, check if there is a noun in the sentence that you can place after some.

Example:

I do not have to buy bread. Rachel has already bought some [bread].

Exceptions

Positive Clauses with Any

We usually use some in positive clauses. But after never, without, hardly, we use any.

Example:

We never go anywhere.

She did her homework without any help.

There’s hardly anyone here.

Also in if clauses, we usually use any.

Example:

If there is anything to do, just call me.

Questions with Some

We usually use any in questions. But if we expect or want the other to answer ‚yes‘, we use some.

Example:

Have you got any brothers and sisters?

→ some people have brothers or sisters, others don't - we cannot expect the answer to be ‚yes‘

Would you like some biscuits?

→ we offer something and want to encourage the other to say ‚ja‘

Present Simple

SIMPLE PRESENT

(See also Verbs -'Regular verbs in the simple present')

Simple present, third person singular

Note:

1. he, she, it: in the third person singular the verb always ends in -s:
   he wants, she needs, he gives, she thinks.
   
   
2. Negative and question forms use DOES (=the third person of the auxiliary'DO') + the infinitive of the verb.
   He wants. Does he want? He does not want.
   
   
3. Verbs ending in -y : the third person changes the -y to -ies:
   fly flies, cry cries
   
   Exception: if there is a vowel before the -y:
   play plays, pray prays
   
   
4. Add -es to verbs ending in:-ss, -x, -sh, -ch:
   he passes, she catches, he fixes, it pushes

See also Verbs -'Regular verbs in the simple present', and 'Be, do & have'

Examples:

1. Third person singular with s or -es

• He goes to school every morning.
• She understands English.
• It mixes the sand and the water.
• He tries very hard.
• She enjoys playing the piano.

2. Simple present, form

Example: to think, present simple

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I think	Do I think ?	I do not think.
You think	Do you think?	You don't think.
he, she, it thinks	Does he, she, it think?	He, she, it doesn't think.
we think	Do we think?	We don't think.
you think	Do you think?	You don't think.

The simple present is used:

1. to express habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging situations, emotions and wishes:
   I smoke (habit); I work in London (unchanging situation); London is a large city (general truth)
   
   
2. to give instructions or directions:
   You walk for two hundred metres, then you turn left.
   
   
3. to express fixed arrangements, present or future:
   Your exam starts at 09.00
   
   
4. to express future time, after some conjunctions: after, when, before, as soon as, until:
   He'll give it to you when you come next Saturday.

BE CAREFUL! The simple present is not used to express actions happening now. See Present Continuous.

Examples:

1. For habits
   He drinks tea at breakfast.
   She only eats fish.
   They watch television regularly.
   
   
2. For repeated actions or events
   We catch the bus every morning.
   It rains every afternoon in the hot season.
   They drive to Monaco every summer.
   
   
3. For general truths
   Water freezes at zero degrees.
   The Earth revolves around the Sun.
   Her mother is Peruvian.
   
   
4. For instructions or directions
   Open the packet and pour the contents into hot water.
   You take the No.6 bus to Watney and then the No.10 to Bedford.
   
   
5. For fixed arrangements
   His mother arrives tomorrow.
   Our holiday starts on the 26th March
   
   
6. With future constructions
   She'll see you before she leaves.
   We'll give it to her when she arrives.

Ways 2 stop feeling depressed

• Understanding the emotion cycle: Some day you feel happy, and some day you feel hopeless. Most of the time you're in between positive and negative emotions which help you put your feelings in perspective. So, knowing that a feeling of depression is only temporary.
• Spend time with postive people: Nothing affects the way you think and feel more than the people you interact with. Nothing affects the way you think and feel more than the people you interact with.
• Reflect on pass success: Take a few minutes to remember your past accomplishments and build yourself up. What made you successful before? What are your strengths? Frequently, this exercise will build self confidence, help you figure out what went wrong, and generate ideas for success in the future.
• Focus on gratitude: When you consider everything good in your life and compare it to the problems of less fortunate people, the issue that’s making you depressed won’t seem as serious.
• Change of scenery: One of the best ways to change the way you feel is to change your environment. If you still in the same environment, it will remind you the problems.
• Break your routine: Going through the same routine, day after day, can be monotonous and depressing. If you can, take a day off from work. Do something you don’t normally have time for or something you’ve never tried.
• Interact with animals and nature: It’s funny when you consider how humans put so much importance on their own tiny problems. Animals don’t think this way. Observing and interacting with them will help you get over your problems.
• Get moving: In general, movement is good for your health and mind. When you move, your mind will be working, so you can think about other solutions.
• Think about the big picture: In the long run, everything we do will probably be forgotten. Some might find this depressing, but it shouldn’t be. It means that all our problems are illusory. In a million years no one will remember what you did or didn’t do. What matters is the present moment and enjoying every second of life that we’re blessed with.
• Do something to help yourself: Above all, the best way to stop feeling depressed is to take action. What is your biggest problem? How can you alleviate it? Once you decide to stop moping and start moving forward you won’t have time to feel depressed. Action will occupy your mind and give you something to look forward to. Once you get some results, you’ll build momentum and positive thinking will keep getting easier.